Welsh monastic asceticism, a highly evolved secular legal system (Cyfraith Hywel), and a distinctive literary tradition illustrate a strong sense of cultural identity, which emerged among the Welsh after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century. Of the principal polities, Gwynedd retained independence until the late 13th century, when it too was conquered by England. However, formal annexation and abolishment of Welsh law did not take place until the 16th century. Wales (with all regions united under one government) has never been a sovereign state, although a number of rival principalities remained independent until English conquest. From the 19th Century much of Wales became heavily industrialised, supplying the British Empire and its colonies with vast quantities of coal and steel and establishing a large manufacturing base which has only recently been overtaken by the service sector. Despite lower GDP than other regions of Britain, the gap in real living standards across the whole of Wales, compared to other parts of Britain, is not as pronounced.
From the 20th Century a revival in Welsh national consciousness, together with a reversal in the decline of the Welsh language has taken place. Cardiff (Caerdydd) was established as the capital of Wales in 1955, with the Welsh Office centred here in 1964. The National Assembly for Wales (Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) was formed in 1999, with powers to amend primary legislation from U.K. Parliament. These powers will be further widened by the Government of Wales Act 2006 taking effect after the 2007 Welsh Assembly election has been held. A Welsh Government with the capability of producing some primary legislation (similar to, but not as powerful as, the Scottish Executive), will be separated from the Welsh Assembly.